Assignment Language Assessment, pertemuan 14
Summary
In foreign language learning, reading is likewise a skill that teachers simply expect learners to acquire. Basic, beginning-level textbooks in a foreign language presuppose a student’s reading ability if only because it's a book that is the medium. Most formal tests use the written word' as a stimulus for test-taker response; even oral interviews may require reading performance for certain tasks. Reading, arguably the most essential skill for success in all educational contexts, remains a skill of paramount importance as we create assessments of general language ability.
A. TYPES (GENRES) OF READING
Each type or genre of written text has its own set of governing rules and conventions. A reader must be able to anticipate those conventions in order to process meaning efficiently. With an extraordinary number of genres present in any literate culture, the reader's ability to process texts must be very sophisticated. When we realize that this list is only the beginning, it is easy to see how overwhelming it is to learn to read in a foreign language! The genre of a text enables readers apply certain schemata that will assist them in extracting appropriate meaning. If for example readers know that a text is a recipe, they will expect a certain arrangement of information (ingredients) and will know to search for a sequential order of directions. Efficient readers also have to know what their purpose is in reading a text, the strategies for accomplishing that purpose, and how to retain the information.
B. MICROSKILLS, MACROSKILLS, AND STRATEGIES FOR READING
Aside from attending to genres of text, the skills and strategies for accomplishing reading emerge as a crucial consideration in the assessment of reading ability.
C. TYPES OF READING
In the case of reading, variety of performance is derived more from the multiplicity of types of texts (the genres listed above) than from the variety of overt types of performance. Nevertheless, for considering assessment procedures, several types of reading performance are typically identified, and these will serve as organizers of various assessment tasks.
1. Perceptive. In keeping with the set of categories specified for listening comprehension, similar specifications are offered here; except with some differing terminology to capture the uniqueness of reading. Perceptive reading tasks involve attending to the components of larger stretches of discourse: letters, words, punctuation, and other graphemic symbols. Bottom-up processing is implied.
2. Selective. This category is largely an artifact of assessment formats. In order to ascertain one's reading recognition of lexical, grammatical, or discourse features of language within a very short stretch of language, certain typical tasks are used: picture-cued tasks, matching, true/false, multiple-choice, etc. Stimuli include sentences, brief paragraphs, and simple charts and graphs. Brief responses are intended as-well. A combination of bottom-up and top-down processing may be used.
3. Interactive. Included among interactive reading types are stretches of language of several paragraphs to one page or more in which the reader must, in a psycholinguistic sense, interact with the text. That is, reading is a process of negotiating meaning; the reader brings to the text a set of schemata for understanding it, and intake is the product of that interaction. Typical genres that lend themselves to interactive reading are anecdotes, short narratives and descriptions, excerpts from longer texts, questionnaires, memos, announcements, directions, recipes, and the like the focus of an interactive task is to identify relevant features (lexical, symbolic, grammatical, and discourse) within texts of moderately short length with the objective of retaining the information that is processed Top-down processing is typical of ~ such tasks, although some instances of bottom-up performance may be necessary.
4. Extensive. Extensive reading, as discussed in this book, applies to texts of more than a page, up to and including professional articles, essays, technical reports, short stories, and books. (It should be noted that reading research commonly refers to "extensive reading" as longer stretches of discourse, such as long articles and books that are usually read outside a classroom hour. Here that definition is massaged a little in order to encompass any text longer than a page.) The purposes of assessment usually are to tap into a learner's global understanding of a text, as opposed to asking test-takers to "zoom in'" on small details. Top-down processing is\ assumed for most extensive tasks.
D. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: PERCEPTIVE READING
At the beginning level of reading a second language lies a set of tasks that are fundamental and basic: recognition of alphabetic symbols, capitalized and lowercase letters, punctuation, words and grapheme-phoneme correspondences. Such tasks of perception are often referred to as literacy tasks, implying that the learner is in the early stages of becoming "literate." Some learners are already literate in their own native language, but in other cases the second language may be the first language that they have ever learned to read. This latter context poses cognitive and sometimes age-related issues that need to be considered carefully. Assessment of literacy is no easy assignment, and if you are interested in this particular challenging area, further reading beyond this book is advised (Harp, 1991; Farr &Tone, 1994; Genesee, 1994; Cooper, 1997). Assessment of basic reading skills may be carried out in a number of different ways.
1. Reading Aloud
The test-taker sees separate letters, words, and/or short sentences and reads them aloud, one by one, in the presence of an administrator. Since the assessment is of reading comprehension, any recognizable oral approximation of the target response is considered correct.
2. Written Response
The same stimuli are presented, and the test-taker's task is' to reproduce the probe in writing. Because of the transfer across different skills here, evaluation of the test-taker's response must be carefully treated. If an error occurs, make sure you determine its source; what might be assumed to be a writing error, for example, may actually be a reading error, and vice versa.
3. Multiple Choice
Multiple-choice responses are not only a matter of choosing one of four or five possible answers. Other formats, some of which are especially useful at the low levels of reading, include same/different, circle the answer, true/false, choose the letter, and matching.
4. Picture Cued Items
Test-takers are shown a picture, such as the one on the next page, along with a written text and are given one of a number of possible tasks to perform.
E. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: SELECTIVE READING
Just above the rudimentary skill level of perception of letters and words is a category in which the test designer focuses on formal aspects of language (lexical, grammatical, and a few discourse features). This category includes what many incorrectly think of as testing "vocabulary and grammar."
1. Multiple Choice (for Form Focused Criteria)
By far the most popular method of testing a reading knowledge of vocabulary and grammar is the multiple-choice format, mainly for reasons of practicality: it is easy to administer and can be scored quickly. The most straightforward .multiple-choice items may have little context, but might serve as a vocabulary or grammar check.
2. Matching Tasks
At this selective level of reading, the test-taker's task is simply to respond correctly, which makes matching an appropriate format. The most frequently appearing criterion in matching procedures is vocabulary. Alderson (2000, p.: 218) suggested matching procedures at an even more sophisticated level, where test-takers have to discern pragmatic interpretations of certain signs or labels such as "Freshly made ·sandwiches" and "Use before 10/23/02." Matches for those two are “We sell food” and “This is too old,” which are selected from a number of other options.
3. Editing Tasks
Editing for grammatical or rhetorical errors is a widely used test method for assessing linguistic competence in reading. The TOEFL® and many "other tests employ this technique with the argument that it not only focuses on grammar but also, introduces a simulation of the authentic task of editing, or discerning errors in written passages. Its authenticity may be supported if you consider proofreading as a real-world skill that is being tested.
4. Picture Cued Tasks
In the previous section we looked at picture-cued tasks for perceptive recognition of symbols and words. Pictures and photographs may be equally well utilized for examining ability at the selective level.
5. Gap Filling Tasks
Many of the multiple-choice tasks described above can be converted into gap-filling, or "fill-in-the-blank items in which the test-taker's response is to write a word or phrase. An extension of simple gap-filling tasks is to create sentence completion items where test-takers read part of a sentence and then complete it by writing a phrase.
F. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: INTERACTIVE READING
Tasks at this level, like selective tasks, have a combination of form focused and meaning focused objectives but with more emphasis on meaning. Interactive tasks may therefore imply a little more focus on top-down processing than on bottom-up. Texts are a little longer, from a paragraph to as much as a page or so in the case of ordinary prose. Charts, graphs, and other graphics may be somewhat complex in their format.
1. Cloze Tasks
One of the most popular types of reading assessment task is the cloze procedure. The word cloze was coined by educational psychologists to capture the Gestalt psychological concept of "closure," that is, the ability to fill in gaps in an incomplete image (visual; auditory, or cognitive) and supply (from background schemata) " omitted details. Cloze tests are usually a minimum of two paragraphs in length in order to account for discourse expectancies. They can be constructed relatively easily as long as the specifications for choosing deletions and for scoring are clearly defined. Typically every seventh word (plus or minus two) is deleted (known as fixed-ratio deletion).
2. Impromptu Reading Plus Comprehension Questions
If cloze testing is the most-researched procedure for assessing reading, the traditional "Read a passage and answer son1e questions" technique is undoubtedly the oldest and the most common. Virtually every proficiency test uses the format, and one would rarely consider assessing reading without some component of the assessment involving impromptu reading and responding to questions.
3. Short answer Tasks
Multiple-choice items are difficult to construct and validate, and classroom teachers rarely have time in their busy schedules to design such a test. A popular alternative to multiple-choice questions following reading passages is the age-old answer format. A reading passage is presented, and the test-taker reads questions that must be answered in a sentence or two. Questions might cover the same specifications indicated above for the TOEFL reading, but be worded in question form.
4. Editing (Longer Texts)
The previous section of this chapter (on selective reading) described editing tasks, put there the discussion was limited to a list of unrelated sentences, each presented with an error to be-detected by the test-taker. The same technique has been applied successfully to longer passages of 200 to 300 words. Several advantages are gained in the longer format.
5. Scanning
Scanning is a strategy used by all readers to find relevant information in a text. Assessment of scanning is carried out by presenting test-takers with a text (prose or something in a chart or graph format) and requiring rapid identification of relevant bits of information. Among the variety of scanning objectives (for each of the genres named above), the test-taker must locate
• A date, name, or place in an article;
• The setting for a narrative or story;
• The principal divisions of a chapter;
• The principal research finding in a technical report;
• A result reported in a specified cell in a table;
• The cost of an item on a menu; and
• Specified data needed to fill out an application.
6. Ordering Tasks
Students always enjoy the activity of receiving little strips of paper, each with a sentence on it, and assembling them into a story, sometimes called the "strip story" technique. Variations on this can serve as an assessment of overall global understanding of a story and of the cohesive devices that signal the order of events or ideas. Alderson et al. (1995, p. 53) warn, however, against assuming that there is only one 'logical order.
7. Information Transfer: Reading Charts, Maps, Graphs, Diagrams
Every educated person must be able to comprehend charts, maps, graphs, calendars, diagrams, and the like. Converting such nonverbal input into comprehensible intake requires not only an understanding of the graphic and verbal conventions of the medium but also a linguistic ability to interpret that information to someone else. Reading a map implies understanding the conventions of map graphics, but it is often accompanied by telling someone where to turn, how far to go, etc. This implies a process of information transfer from one skill to another: in this case, from reading verbal and/or nonverbal information to speaking/writing. Assessment of these abilities convers a broad spectrum of tasks.
G. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: EXTENSIVE READING
Extensive reading involves somewhat longer texts than we have been dealing with up to this point. Journal articles, technical reports, longer essays, short stories, and books fall into this category. The reason for placing such reading into a separate category is that reading of this type of discourse almost always involves a focus on meaning using mostly top-down processing, with only occasional use of a targeted bottom-up strategy. Also, because of the extent of such reading, formal assessment is unlikely to be contained within the time constraints of a typical formal testing framework, which presents a unique challenge for assessment purposes.
1. Skimming Tasks
Skimming is the process of rapid coverage of reading matter to determine its gist or main idea. It is a prediction strategy used to give a reader a sense of the topic and purpose of a text, the organization of the text, the perspective or point of view of the writer, its ease or difficulty, and/or its usefulness to the reader. Of course skimming can apply to texts of less than one page, so it would be wise not to confine this type of task just to extensive texts.
2. Summarizing and Responding
One of the most common means of assessing extensive reading is to ask the test-taker to write a summary of the text. Of further interest in assessing extensive reading is the technique of asking a student to respond to a text. The two tasks should not be confused with each other: summarizing requires a synopsis or overview of the text, while responding asks the reader to provide his or her own opinion on the text as a whole or on some statement or issue within it.
3. Note Taking and Outlining
Finally, a reader's comprehension of extensive texts may be assessed through an evaluation of a process of note-talking and/or outlining. Because of the difficulty of controlling the conditions and time frame for both these techniques, they rest firmly in the category of informal assessment.
A. GENRES OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE
Chapter 8's discussion of assessment of reading listed more than 50 written language genres. The same classification scheme is reformulated here to include the most common genres that a second language writer might produce, within and beyond the requirements of a curriculum. Even though this list is slightly shorter, you should be aware of the surprising multiplicity of options of written genres that second language learners need to acquire.
B. TYPES OF WRITING PERFORMANCE
Four categories of written performance that capture the range of written production are considered here. Each category resembles the categories defined for the other three skills, but these categories, as always, reflect the uniqueness of the skill area.
1. Imitative. To produce written language, the learner must attain skills in the fundamental, basic tasks of writing letters, words, punctuation, and very brief sentences. This category includes the ability to spell correctly and to perceive phoneme-grapheme correspondences in the English spelling system. It is a level at which learners are trying to master the mechanics of writing. At this stage, form is the primary if not exclusive focus, while context and meaning are of secondary concern.
2. Intensive (controlled). Beyond the fundamentals of imitative writing are skills in producing appropriate vocabulary within a context, collocations and idioms, and correct grammatical features up to the length of a: sentence. Meaning and context are of some importance in determining correctness and appropriateness, but most assessment tasks are more 'concerned with a focus on form, and are rather strictly controlled by the test design.
3. Responsive. Here, assessment tasks require learners to perform at a limited discourse level, connecting sentences into a paragraph and creating a logically connected sequence of two or three paragraphs. Tasks respond to pedagogical directives, lists of criteria, outlines, and other guidelines. Genres of writing include brief narratives and descriptions, short reports, lab reports, summaries, brief responses to reading, and interpretations of charts or graphs. Under specified conditions, the writer begins to 'exercise some freedom of choice among alternative forms of expression of ideas.
4. Extensive. Extensive writing implies successful management of all the processes and strategies of writing for all purposes, up to the length of an essay, a term paper, a major research project report, or even a thesis. Writers focus on achieving a purpose, organizing and developing ideas logically, using details to support or illustrate ideas, demonstrating syntactic and lexical variety, and in many cases, engaging in the process of multiple drafts to achieve a final product. Focus on grammatical form is limited to occasional editing or proofreading of a draft.
C. MICRO AND MACROSKILLS OF WRITING
The earlier micro-skills apply more appropriately to imitative and intensive types of writing task, while tt'1e n1acroskills are essential for the successful o1astery of responsive and extensive writing.
D. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: IMITATIVE WRITING
With the recent worldwide emphasis on teaching English at young ages, it is tempting to assume that every English learner knows how to handwrite the Roman alphabet. Such is not the case. Many beginning-level English learners, from young children to older adults, need basic training in and assessment of imitative writing: the rudiments of forming letters, words, and simple sentences. We examine this level of writing first.
1. Tasks in (Hand) Writing Letters, Words, and Punctuation
First, a comment should be made on the increasing use of personal and laptop computers and handheld instruments for creating written symbols. Handwriting has the potential of becoming a lost art as even very young children are more and more likely to use a keyboard to produce writing. Making the shapes of letters and other symbols is now more a question of learning typing skills than of training the muscles of the hands to use a pen or pencil. Nevertheless, for all practical purposes, handwriting remains a skill of paramount importance within the larger domain of language assessment. A limited variety of types of tasks are commonly used to assess a person's ability to produce written letters and symbols.
1. Copying. There is nothing innovative or modern about directing a test-taker to copy letters or words.
2. Listening cloze selection tasks. These tasks combine dictation with a written script that has a relatively frequent deletion ratio (every fourth or fifth word, perhaps).
3. Picture-cued tasks. Familiar pictures are displayed, and test-takers are told to write the word that the picture represents.
4. Form completion tasks. A variation on pictures is the use of a simple form (registration, application, etc.) that asks for name, address, phone number, and other data.
5. Converting numbers and abbreviations to words. Some tests have a section on which numbers are written-for example hours of the day, dates, or schedule sand test-takers are directed to write out the numbers.
2. Spelling Tasks and Detecting Phoneme Grapheme Correspondences
A number of task types are in popular use to assess the ability to spell words correctly and to process phoneme-grapheme correspondences.
• Spelling tests,
• Picture-cued tasks,
• Multiple-choice techniques,
• Matching phonetic symbols.
E. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: INTENSIVE (CONTROLED) WRITING
This next level of writing is what second language teacher training n1anuals have for decades called controlled writing. It may also be thought of as_ form-focused writing, grammar writing, or simply guided writing. A good deal of writing at this level is display writing as opposed to real writing: students produce language to display their competence in grammar, vocabulary, or sentence formation, and not necessarily to convey meaning for an authentic purpose. The traditional grammar/vocabulary test has plenty of display writing in it, since the response mode demonstrates only the test-taker's ability to con1bine or use words correctly.
1. Dictation and Dicto-Comp
Dictation was described as an assessment of the integration of listening and writing, but it was clear that the primary skill being assessed is listening. Dictation is simply the rendition in writing of what one hears aurally, so it could be classified as an imitative type of writing, especially since a proportion of the test-taker's performance centers on correct spelling. A form of controlled writing related to dictation is a dicto-comp
2. Grammatical Transformation Tasks
In the heyday of structural paradigms of language teaching with slot-filler techniques and slot substitution drills, the practice of making grammatical transformations orally or in writing-was very popular. To this day, language teachers have also used this technique as an assessment task, ostensibly to measure grammatical competence. Numerous versions of the task are possible:
• Change the tenses in a paragraph.
• Change full forms of verbs to reduced forms (contractions).
• Change statements to yes/no or wh-questions.
• Change questions into statements.
• Combine two sentences into one using a relative pronoun.
• Change direct speech to indirect speech.
• Change from active to passive voice.
3. Picture Cued Tasks
A variety of picture-cued controlled tasks have been used in English classrooms around the world. The main advantage in this technique is in detaching the almost ubiquitous reading and writing connection and offering instead a nonverbal means to stimulate written responses. Short sentences, Picture description, Picture sequence description.
4. Vocabulary Assessment Tasks
Most vocabulary study is carried out through reading. A number of assessments of reading recognition of vocabulary were discussed in the previous chapter: multiple choice techniques, matching, picture-cued identification, cloze techniques, guessing the meaning of a word in context, etc. The major techniques used to assess vocabulary are (a) defining and (b) using a word in a sentence. Vocabulary assessment is clearly form-focused in the above tasks, but the procedures are creatively linked by means of the target word, its collocations, and its morphological variants.
5. Ordering Tasks
One task at the sentence level may appeal to those who are fond of word games and puzzles: ordering (or reordering) a scrambled set of words into a correct sentence. While this somewhat inauthentic task generates writing performance and may be said to tap into grammatical word-ordering rules.
6. Short Answer and Sentence Completion Tasks
Some types of short-answer tasks were discussed in Chapter 8 because of the heavy participation of reading performance in their completion. Such items range from very simple and predictable to somewhat more elaborate responses.
F. ISSUES IN ASSESSING RESPONSIVE AND EXTENSIVE WRITING
Responsive writing creates the opportunity for test-takers to offer an array of 'possible creative responses within a pedagogical or assessment framework: test-takers are "responding" to a prompt or assignment. Freed from the strict control of intensive writing, learners can exercise a number of options in choosing vocabulary, grammar, and discourse, but with some constraints and conditions. Criteria now begin to include the discourse and rhetorical conventions of paragraph structure and of connecting two or three such paragraphs in texts of limited length. The learner is responsible for accomplishing a purpose in writing, for developing a sequence of connected ideas, and for empathizing with an audience. The genres of text that are typically addressed here are
- Short reports (with structured formats and conventions);
- responses to the reading of an article or story;
- summaries of articles or stories;
- brief narratives or descriptions; and
- interpretations of graphs, tables, and charts.
Both responsive and extensive writing tasks are the subject of some classic, widely debated assessment issues that take on a distinctly different flavor from those at the lower-end production of writing. Authenticity, Scoring, Time.
G. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: RESPONSIVE AND EXTENSIVE WRITING
In this section we consider both responsive and extensive writing tasks. They will -be regarded here as a continuum of possibilities ranging from lower-end tasks whose complexity exceeds those in the previous category of intensive or controlled writing, through more open-ended tasks such as writing short reports, essays, summaries, and responses up to texts of several pages or more.
1. Para-phrasing
One of the more difficult concepts for second language learners to grasp is paraphrasing. The initial step in teaching paraphrasing is to ensure that learners understand the importance of paraphrasing: to say something in one's own words, to avoid plagiarizing, to offer some variety in expression. With those possible motivations and purposes in mind, the test designer needs to elicit a paraphrase of a sentence or paragraph, usually not more. Scoring of the test-taker's response is a judgment call in which the criterion of conveying the same or similar message is primary, with secondary evaluations of discourse, grammar, and vocabulary.
2. Guided Question and Answer
Another lower-order task in this type of writing, which has the pedagogical benefit of guiding a learner without dictating the form of the output, is a guided question and answer format in which the test administrator poses a series of questions that essentially serve as an outline of the emergent written text. Guided writing texts, which may be as long as two or three paragraphs, may be scored on either an analytic or a holistic scale (discussed below). Guided writing prompts like these are less likely to appear on a formal test and more likely to serve as a way to prompt initial drafts of writing.
3. Paragraph Construction Tasks
The participation of reading performance is inevitable in writing effective paragraphs. To a great extent, writing is the art of emulating what one reads. You read an effective paragraph; you analyze the ingredients of its success; you emulate it. Assessment of paragraph development takes on a number of different forms: Topic sentence writing, Topic development within a paragraph, Development of main and supporting ideas across paragraphs.
4. Strategic Options
Developing main and supporting ideas is the goal for the writer attempting to create an effective text, whether a short one- to two-paragraph one or an extensive one of several pages. A number .of strategies are commonly taught to second language writers to accomplish their purposes. Aside from strategies of free writing, outlining, drafting, and revising, writers need to be aware of the task that has been demanded and to focus on the genre of writing and the expectations of that genre. Attending to task, Attending to genre.
H. SCORING METHODS FOR RESPONSIVE AND EXTENSIVE WRITING
At responsive and extensive levels of writing, three major approaches to scoring writing performance are commonly used by test designers: holistic, primary trait, and analytical. In the first method, a single score is assigned to an essay, which represents a reader's general overall assessment. Primary trait scoring is a variation of the holistic method in that the achievement of the primary purpose, or trait, of an essay is the only factor rated. Analytical scoring breaks a test-taker written text down into a number of subcategories (organization, grammar, etc.) and gives a separate rating for each.
1. Holistic Scoring
Each point on a holistic scale is given a, systematic set of descriptors, and the reader-evaluator matches an overall impression with the descriptors to arrive at a score. Descriptors usually (but not always) follow a prescribed pattern. For example, the first descriptor across all score categories may address the quality of task achievement, the second may deal with organization, the third with grammatical or rhetorical considerations, and' so on. Scoring, however, is truly holistic in that those subsets are not quantitatively added up to yield a score.
2. Primary Trait Scoring
A second method of scoring, primary trait, focuses on "how well students can write within a narrowly defined range of discourse" (Weigle, 2002, p. 110).This type of scoring en1phasizes the task at hand and assigns a score based on the effectiveness of the text's achieving that one goal.
3. Analytic Scoring
For classroom instruction, holistic scoring provides little wash-back into the writer's further stages of learning. Primary trait scoring focuses on the principal function of the text and therefore offers some feedback potential, but no wash-back for any of the aspects of the written production that enhance the ultimate accomplishment of the purpose. Classroom evaluation of learning is best served through analytic scoring, in which as many as six major elements of writing are scored, thus enabling learners to home in on weaknesses and to capitalize on strengths. Analytic scoring may be more appropriately called analytic assessment in order to capture its closer association with classroom language instruction than with formal testing. Brown and Bailey (1984) designed an analytical scoring scale that specified five major categories and a description of five different levels in each category, ranging from "unacceptable" to "excellent" (see Table 9.2).
I. BEYOND SCORING: RESPONDING TO EXTENSIVE WRITING
Formal testing carries with it the burden of designing a practical and reliable instrument that assesses its intended criterion accurately. To accomplish that mission, designers of writing tests are charged with the task of providing as "objective" a scoring procedure as possible, and one that in many cases can be easily interpreted by agents beyond the learner. Holistic, primary trait, and analytic scoring all satisfy those ends. Yet beyond mathematically calculated scores lies a rich domain of assessment in which a developing writer is coached from stage to stage in a process of building a storehouse of writing skills. Here in the classroom, in the tutored relationship of teacher and student, and in the community of peer learners, most of the hard work of assessing writing is carried out. Such assessment is informal, formative, and replete with wash-back.
1. Assessing Initial Stages of the Process of Composing
Following are some guidelines for assessing the initial stages (the first draft or two) of a written composition. These guidelines are generic for self, peer, and teacher responding. Each assessor will need to modify the list according to the level of the learner, the context, and the purpose in responding.
2. Assessing Later Stages of the Process of Composing
Once the writer has determined and clarified his or her purpose and plan, and has completed at least one or perhaps two drafts, the focus shifts toward "fine tuning" the expression with a view toward a final revision. Through all these stages it is assumed that peers and teacher are both responding to the writer through conferencing in person, electronic communication, or, at the very least, an exchange of papers.
References:
Brown, H. Douglas. Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices. Longman.
ASSESSING READING
A. TYPES (GENRES) OF READING
Each type or genre of written text has its own set of governing rules and conventions. A reader must be able to anticipate those conventions in order to process meaning efficiently. With an extraordinary number of genres present in any literate culture, the reader's ability to process texts must be very sophisticated. When we realize that this list is only the beginning, it is easy to see how overwhelming it is to learn to read in a foreign language! The genre of a text enables readers apply certain schemata that will assist them in extracting appropriate meaning. If for example readers know that a text is a recipe, they will expect a certain arrangement of information (ingredients) and will know to search for a sequential order of directions. Efficient readers also have to know what their purpose is in reading a text, the strategies for accomplishing that purpose, and how to retain the information.
B. MICROSKILLS, MACROSKILLS, AND STRATEGIES FOR READING
Aside from attending to genres of text, the skills and strategies for accomplishing reading emerge as a crucial consideration in the assessment of reading ability.
C. TYPES OF READING
In the case of reading, variety of performance is derived more from the multiplicity of types of texts (the genres listed above) than from the variety of overt types of performance. Nevertheless, for considering assessment procedures, several types of reading performance are typically identified, and these will serve as organizers of various assessment tasks.
1. Perceptive. In keeping with the set of categories specified for listening comprehension, similar specifications are offered here; except with some differing terminology to capture the uniqueness of reading. Perceptive reading tasks involve attending to the components of larger stretches of discourse: letters, words, punctuation, and other graphemic symbols. Bottom-up processing is implied.
2. Selective. This category is largely an artifact of assessment formats. In order to ascertain one's reading recognition of lexical, grammatical, or discourse features of language within a very short stretch of language, certain typical tasks are used: picture-cued tasks, matching, true/false, multiple-choice, etc. Stimuli include sentences, brief paragraphs, and simple charts and graphs. Brief responses are intended as-well. A combination of bottom-up and top-down processing may be used.
3. Interactive. Included among interactive reading types are stretches of language of several paragraphs to one page or more in which the reader must, in a psycholinguistic sense, interact with the text. That is, reading is a process of negotiating meaning; the reader brings to the text a set of schemata for understanding it, and intake is the product of that interaction. Typical genres that lend themselves to interactive reading are anecdotes, short narratives and descriptions, excerpts from longer texts, questionnaires, memos, announcements, directions, recipes, and the like the focus of an interactive task is to identify relevant features (lexical, symbolic, grammatical, and discourse) within texts of moderately short length with the objective of retaining the information that is processed Top-down processing is typical of ~ such tasks, although some instances of bottom-up performance may be necessary.
4. Extensive. Extensive reading, as discussed in this book, applies to texts of more than a page, up to and including professional articles, essays, technical reports, short stories, and books. (It should be noted that reading research commonly refers to "extensive reading" as longer stretches of discourse, such as long articles and books that are usually read outside a classroom hour. Here that definition is massaged a little in order to encompass any text longer than a page.) The purposes of assessment usually are to tap into a learner's global understanding of a text, as opposed to asking test-takers to "zoom in'" on small details. Top-down processing is\ assumed for most extensive tasks.
D. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: PERCEPTIVE READING
At the beginning level of reading a second language lies a set of tasks that are fundamental and basic: recognition of alphabetic symbols, capitalized and lowercase letters, punctuation, words and grapheme-phoneme correspondences. Such tasks of perception are often referred to as literacy tasks, implying that the learner is in the early stages of becoming "literate." Some learners are already literate in their own native language, but in other cases the second language may be the first language that they have ever learned to read. This latter context poses cognitive and sometimes age-related issues that need to be considered carefully. Assessment of literacy is no easy assignment, and if you are interested in this particular challenging area, further reading beyond this book is advised (Harp, 1991; Farr &Tone, 1994; Genesee, 1994; Cooper, 1997). Assessment of basic reading skills may be carried out in a number of different ways.
1. Reading Aloud
The test-taker sees separate letters, words, and/or short sentences and reads them aloud, one by one, in the presence of an administrator. Since the assessment is of reading comprehension, any recognizable oral approximation of the target response is considered correct.
2. Written Response
The same stimuli are presented, and the test-taker's task is' to reproduce the probe in writing. Because of the transfer across different skills here, evaluation of the test-taker's response must be carefully treated. If an error occurs, make sure you determine its source; what might be assumed to be a writing error, for example, may actually be a reading error, and vice versa.
3. Multiple Choice
Multiple-choice responses are not only a matter of choosing one of four or five possible answers. Other formats, some of which are especially useful at the low levels of reading, include same/different, circle the answer, true/false, choose the letter, and matching.
4. Picture Cued Items
Test-takers are shown a picture, such as the one on the next page, along with a written text and are given one of a number of possible tasks to perform.
E. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: SELECTIVE READING
Just above the rudimentary skill level of perception of letters and words is a category in which the test designer focuses on formal aspects of language (lexical, grammatical, and a few discourse features). This category includes what many incorrectly think of as testing "vocabulary and grammar."
1. Multiple Choice (for Form Focused Criteria)
By far the most popular method of testing a reading knowledge of vocabulary and grammar is the multiple-choice format, mainly for reasons of practicality: it is easy to administer and can be scored quickly. The most straightforward .multiple-choice items may have little context, but might serve as a vocabulary or grammar check.
2. Matching Tasks
At this selective level of reading, the test-taker's task is simply to respond correctly, which makes matching an appropriate format. The most frequently appearing criterion in matching procedures is vocabulary. Alderson (2000, p.: 218) suggested matching procedures at an even more sophisticated level, where test-takers have to discern pragmatic interpretations of certain signs or labels such as "Freshly made ·sandwiches" and "Use before 10/23/02." Matches for those two are “We sell food” and “This is too old,” which are selected from a number of other options.
3. Editing Tasks
Editing for grammatical or rhetorical errors is a widely used test method for assessing linguistic competence in reading. The TOEFL® and many "other tests employ this technique with the argument that it not only focuses on grammar but also, introduces a simulation of the authentic task of editing, or discerning errors in written passages. Its authenticity may be supported if you consider proofreading as a real-world skill that is being tested.
4. Picture Cued Tasks
In the previous section we looked at picture-cued tasks for perceptive recognition of symbols and words. Pictures and photographs may be equally well utilized for examining ability at the selective level.
5. Gap Filling Tasks
Many of the multiple-choice tasks described above can be converted into gap-filling, or "fill-in-the-blank items in which the test-taker's response is to write a word or phrase. An extension of simple gap-filling tasks is to create sentence completion items where test-takers read part of a sentence and then complete it by writing a phrase.
F. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: INTERACTIVE READING
Tasks at this level, like selective tasks, have a combination of form focused and meaning focused objectives but with more emphasis on meaning. Interactive tasks may therefore imply a little more focus on top-down processing than on bottom-up. Texts are a little longer, from a paragraph to as much as a page or so in the case of ordinary prose. Charts, graphs, and other graphics may be somewhat complex in their format.
1. Cloze Tasks
One of the most popular types of reading assessment task is the cloze procedure. The word cloze was coined by educational psychologists to capture the Gestalt psychological concept of "closure," that is, the ability to fill in gaps in an incomplete image (visual; auditory, or cognitive) and supply (from background schemata) " omitted details. Cloze tests are usually a minimum of two paragraphs in length in order to account for discourse expectancies. They can be constructed relatively easily as long as the specifications for choosing deletions and for scoring are clearly defined. Typically every seventh word (plus or minus two) is deleted (known as fixed-ratio deletion).
2. Impromptu Reading Plus Comprehension Questions
If cloze testing is the most-researched procedure for assessing reading, the traditional "Read a passage and answer son1e questions" technique is undoubtedly the oldest and the most common. Virtually every proficiency test uses the format, and one would rarely consider assessing reading without some component of the assessment involving impromptu reading and responding to questions.
3. Short answer Tasks
Multiple-choice items are difficult to construct and validate, and classroom teachers rarely have time in their busy schedules to design such a test. A popular alternative to multiple-choice questions following reading passages is the age-old answer format. A reading passage is presented, and the test-taker reads questions that must be answered in a sentence or two. Questions might cover the same specifications indicated above for the TOEFL reading, but be worded in question form.
4. Editing (Longer Texts)
The previous section of this chapter (on selective reading) described editing tasks, put there the discussion was limited to a list of unrelated sentences, each presented with an error to be-detected by the test-taker. The same technique has been applied successfully to longer passages of 200 to 300 words. Several advantages are gained in the longer format.
5. Scanning
Scanning is a strategy used by all readers to find relevant information in a text. Assessment of scanning is carried out by presenting test-takers with a text (prose or something in a chart or graph format) and requiring rapid identification of relevant bits of information. Among the variety of scanning objectives (for each of the genres named above), the test-taker must locate
• A date, name, or place in an article;
• The setting for a narrative or story;
• The principal divisions of a chapter;
• The principal research finding in a technical report;
• A result reported in a specified cell in a table;
• The cost of an item on a menu; and
• Specified data needed to fill out an application.
6. Ordering Tasks
Students always enjoy the activity of receiving little strips of paper, each with a sentence on it, and assembling them into a story, sometimes called the "strip story" technique. Variations on this can serve as an assessment of overall global understanding of a story and of the cohesive devices that signal the order of events or ideas. Alderson et al. (1995, p. 53) warn, however, against assuming that there is only one 'logical order.
7. Information Transfer: Reading Charts, Maps, Graphs, Diagrams
Every educated person must be able to comprehend charts, maps, graphs, calendars, diagrams, and the like. Converting such nonverbal input into comprehensible intake requires not only an understanding of the graphic and verbal conventions of the medium but also a linguistic ability to interpret that information to someone else. Reading a map implies understanding the conventions of map graphics, but it is often accompanied by telling someone where to turn, how far to go, etc. This implies a process of information transfer from one skill to another: in this case, from reading verbal and/or nonverbal information to speaking/writing. Assessment of these abilities convers a broad spectrum of tasks.
G. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: EXTENSIVE READING
Extensive reading involves somewhat longer texts than we have been dealing with up to this point. Journal articles, technical reports, longer essays, short stories, and books fall into this category. The reason for placing such reading into a separate category is that reading of this type of discourse almost always involves a focus on meaning using mostly top-down processing, with only occasional use of a targeted bottom-up strategy. Also, because of the extent of such reading, formal assessment is unlikely to be contained within the time constraints of a typical formal testing framework, which presents a unique challenge for assessment purposes.
1. Skimming Tasks
Skimming is the process of rapid coverage of reading matter to determine its gist or main idea. It is a prediction strategy used to give a reader a sense of the topic and purpose of a text, the organization of the text, the perspective or point of view of the writer, its ease or difficulty, and/or its usefulness to the reader. Of course skimming can apply to texts of less than one page, so it would be wise not to confine this type of task just to extensive texts.
2. Summarizing and Responding
One of the most common means of assessing extensive reading is to ask the test-taker to write a summary of the text. Of further interest in assessing extensive reading is the technique of asking a student to respond to a text. The two tasks should not be confused with each other: summarizing requires a synopsis or overview of the text, while responding asks the reader to provide his or her own opinion on the text as a whole or on some statement or issue within it.
3. Note Taking and Outlining
Finally, a reader's comprehension of extensive texts may be assessed through an evaluation of a process of note-talking and/or outlining. Because of the difficulty of controlling the conditions and time frame for both these techniques, they rest firmly in the category of informal assessment.
ASSESSING WRITING
Chapter 8's discussion of assessment of reading listed more than 50 written language genres. The same classification scheme is reformulated here to include the most common genres that a second language writer might produce, within and beyond the requirements of a curriculum. Even though this list is slightly shorter, you should be aware of the surprising multiplicity of options of written genres that second language learners need to acquire.
B. TYPES OF WRITING PERFORMANCE
Four categories of written performance that capture the range of written production are considered here. Each category resembles the categories defined for the other three skills, but these categories, as always, reflect the uniqueness of the skill area.
1. Imitative. To produce written language, the learner must attain skills in the fundamental, basic tasks of writing letters, words, punctuation, and very brief sentences. This category includes the ability to spell correctly and to perceive phoneme-grapheme correspondences in the English spelling system. It is a level at which learners are trying to master the mechanics of writing. At this stage, form is the primary if not exclusive focus, while context and meaning are of secondary concern.
2. Intensive (controlled). Beyond the fundamentals of imitative writing are skills in producing appropriate vocabulary within a context, collocations and idioms, and correct grammatical features up to the length of a: sentence. Meaning and context are of some importance in determining correctness and appropriateness, but most assessment tasks are more 'concerned with a focus on form, and are rather strictly controlled by the test design.
3. Responsive. Here, assessment tasks require learners to perform at a limited discourse level, connecting sentences into a paragraph and creating a logically connected sequence of two or three paragraphs. Tasks respond to pedagogical directives, lists of criteria, outlines, and other guidelines. Genres of writing include brief narratives and descriptions, short reports, lab reports, summaries, brief responses to reading, and interpretations of charts or graphs. Under specified conditions, the writer begins to 'exercise some freedom of choice among alternative forms of expression of ideas.
4. Extensive. Extensive writing implies successful management of all the processes and strategies of writing for all purposes, up to the length of an essay, a term paper, a major research project report, or even a thesis. Writers focus on achieving a purpose, organizing and developing ideas logically, using details to support or illustrate ideas, demonstrating syntactic and lexical variety, and in many cases, engaging in the process of multiple drafts to achieve a final product. Focus on grammatical form is limited to occasional editing or proofreading of a draft.
C. MICRO AND MACROSKILLS OF WRITING
The earlier micro-skills apply more appropriately to imitative and intensive types of writing task, while tt'1e n1acroskills are essential for the successful o1astery of responsive and extensive writing.
D. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: IMITATIVE WRITING
With the recent worldwide emphasis on teaching English at young ages, it is tempting to assume that every English learner knows how to handwrite the Roman alphabet. Such is not the case. Many beginning-level English learners, from young children to older adults, need basic training in and assessment of imitative writing: the rudiments of forming letters, words, and simple sentences. We examine this level of writing first.
1. Tasks in (Hand) Writing Letters, Words, and Punctuation
First, a comment should be made on the increasing use of personal and laptop computers and handheld instruments for creating written symbols. Handwriting has the potential of becoming a lost art as even very young children are more and more likely to use a keyboard to produce writing. Making the shapes of letters and other symbols is now more a question of learning typing skills than of training the muscles of the hands to use a pen or pencil. Nevertheless, for all practical purposes, handwriting remains a skill of paramount importance within the larger domain of language assessment. A limited variety of types of tasks are commonly used to assess a person's ability to produce written letters and symbols.
1. Copying. There is nothing innovative or modern about directing a test-taker to copy letters or words.
2. Listening cloze selection tasks. These tasks combine dictation with a written script that has a relatively frequent deletion ratio (every fourth or fifth word, perhaps).
3. Picture-cued tasks. Familiar pictures are displayed, and test-takers are told to write the word that the picture represents.
4. Form completion tasks. A variation on pictures is the use of a simple form (registration, application, etc.) that asks for name, address, phone number, and other data.
5. Converting numbers and abbreviations to words. Some tests have a section on which numbers are written-for example hours of the day, dates, or schedule sand test-takers are directed to write out the numbers.
2. Spelling Tasks and Detecting Phoneme Grapheme Correspondences
A number of task types are in popular use to assess the ability to spell words correctly and to process phoneme-grapheme correspondences.
• Spelling tests,
• Picture-cued tasks,
• Multiple-choice techniques,
• Matching phonetic symbols.
E. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: INTENSIVE (CONTROLED) WRITING
This next level of writing is what second language teacher training n1anuals have for decades called controlled writing. It may also be thought of as_ form-focused writing, grammar writing, or simply guided writing. A good deal of writing at this level is display writing as opposed to real writing: students produce language to display their competence in grammar, vocabulary, or sentence formation, and not necessarily to convey meaning for an authentic purpose. The traditional grammar/vocabulary test has plenty of display writing in it, since the response mode demonstrates only the test-taker's ability to con1bine or use words correctly.
1. Dictation and Dicto-Comp
Dictation was described as an assessment of the integration of listening and writing, but it was clear that the primary skill being assessed is listening. Dictation is simply the rendition in writing of what one hears aurally, so it could be classified as an imitative type of writing, especially since a proportion of the test-taker's performance centers on correct spelling. A form of controlled writing related to dictation is a dicto-comp
2. Grammatical Transformation Tasks
In the heyday of structural paradigms of language teaching with slot-filler techniques and slot substitution drills, the practice of making grammatical transformations orally or in writing-was very popular. To this day, language teachers have also used this technique as an assessment task, ostensibly to measure grammatical competence. Numerous versions of the task are possible:
• Change the tenses in a paragraph.
• Change full forms of verbs to reduced forms (contractions).
• Change statements to yes/no or wh-questions.
• Change questions into statements.
• Combine two sentences into one using a relative pronoun.
• Change direct speech to indirect speech.
• Change from active to passive voice.
3. Picture Cued Tasks
A variety of picture-cued controlled tasks have been used in English classrooms around the world. The main advantage in this technique is in detaching the almost ubiquitous reading and writing connection and offering instead a nonverbal means to stimulate written responses. Short sentences, Picture description, Picture sequence description.
4. Vocabulary Assessment Tasks
Most vocabulary study is carried out through reading. A number of assessments of reading recognition of vocabulary were discussed in the previous chapter: multiple choice techniques, matching, picture-cued identification, cloze techniques, guessing the meaning of a word in context, etc. The major techniques used to assess vocabulary are (a) defining and (b) using a word in a sentence. Vocabulary assessment is clearly form-focused in the above tasks, but the procedures are creatively linked by means of the target word, its collocations, and its morphological variants.
5. Ordering Tasks
One task at the sentence level may appeal to those who are fond of word games and puzzles: ordering (or reordering) a scrambled set of words into a correct sentence. While this somewhat inauthentic task generates writing performance and may be said to tap into grammatical word-ordering rules.
6. Short Answer and Sentence Completion Tasks
Some types of short-answer tasks were discussed in Chapter 8 because of the heavy participation of reading performance in their completion. Such items range from very simple and predictable to somewhat more elaborate responses.
F. ISSUES IN ASSESSING RESPONSIVE AND EXTENSIVE WRITING
Responsive writing creates the opportunity for test-takers to offer an array of 'possible creative responses within a pedagogical or assessment framework: test-takers are "responding" to a prompt or assignment. Freed from the strict control of intensive writing, learners can exercise a number of options in choosing vocabulary, grammar, and discourse, but with some constraints and conditions. Criteria now begin to include the discourse and rhetorical conventions of paragraph structure and of connecting two or three such paragraphs in texts of limited length. The learner is responsible for accomplishing a purpose in writing, for developing a sequence of connected ideas, and for empathizing with an audience. The genres of text that are typically addressed here are
- Short reports (with structured formats and conventions);
- responses to the reading of an article or story;
- summaries of articles or stories;
- brief narratives or descriptions; and
- interpretations of graphs, tables, and charts.
Both responsive and extensive writing tasks are the subject of some classic, widely debated assessment issues that take on a distinctly different flavor from those at the lower-end production of writing. Authenticity, Scoring, Time.
G. DESIGNING ASSESSMENT TASKS: RESPONSIVE AND EXTENSIVE WRITING
In this section we consider both responsive and extensive writing tasks. They will -be regarded here as a continuum of possibilities ranging from lower-end tasks whose complexity exceeds those in the previous category of intensive or controlled writing, through more open-ended tasks such as writing short reports, essays, summaries, and responses up to texts of several pages or more.
1. Para-phrasing
One of the more difficult concepts for second language learners to grasp is paraphrasing. The initial step in teaching paraphrasing is to ensure that learners understand the importance of paraphrasing: to say something in one's own words, to avoid plagiarizing, to offer some variety in expression. With those possible motivations and purposes in mind, the test designer needs to elicit a paraphrase of a sentence or paragraph, usually not more. Scoring of the test-taker's response is a judgment call in which the criterion of conveying the same or similar message is primary, with secondary evaluations of discourse, grammar, and vocabulary.
2. Guided Question and Answer
Another lower-order task in this type of writing, which has the pedagogical benefit of guiding a learner without dictating the form of the output, is a guided question and answer format in which the test administrator poses a series of questions that essentially serve as an outline of the emergent written text. Guided writing texts, which may be as long as two or three paragraphs, may be scored on either an analytic or a holistic scale (discussed below). Guided writing prompts like these are less likely to appear on a formal test and more likely to serve as a way to prompt initial drafts of writing.
3. Paragraph Construction Tasks
The participation of reading performance is inevitable in writing effective paragraphs. To a great extent, writing is the art of emulating what one reads. You read an effective paragraph; you analyze the ingredients of its success; you emulate it. Assessment of paragraph development takes on a number of different forms: Topic sentence writing, Topic development within a paragraph, Development of main and supporting ideas across paragraphs.
4. Strategic Options
Developing main and supporting ideas is the goal for the writer attempting to create an effective text, whether a short one- to two-paragraph one or an extensive one of several pages. A number .of strategies are commonly taught to second language writers to accomplish their purposes. Aside from strategies of free writing, outlining, drafting, and revising, writers need to be aware of the task that has been demanded and to focus on the genre of writing and the expectations of that genre. Attending to task, Attending to genre.
H. SCORING METHODS FOR RESPONSIVE AND EXTENSIVE WRITING
At responsive and extensive levels of writing, three major approaches to scoring writing performance are commonly used by test designers: holistic, primary trait, and analytical. In the first method, a single score is assigned to an essay, which represents a reader's general overall assessment. Primary trait scoring is a variation of the holistic method in that the achievement of the primary purpose, or trait, of an essay is the only factor rated. Analytical scoring breaks a test-taker written text down into a number of subcategories (organization, grammar, etc.) and gives a separate rating for each.
1. Holistic Scoring
Each point on a holistic scale is given a, systematic set of descriptors, and the reader-evaluator matches an overall impression with the descriptors to arrive at a score. Descriptors usually (but not always) follow a prescribed pattern. For example, the first descriptor across all score categories may address the quality of task achievement, the second may deal with organization, the third with grammatical or rhetorical considerations, and' so on. Scoring, however, is truly holistic in that those subsets are not quantitatively added up to yield a score.
2. Primary Trait Scoring
A second method of scoring, primary trait, focuses on "how well students can write within a narrowly defined range of discourse" (Weigle, 2002, p. 110).This type of scoring en1phasizes the task at hand and assigns a score based on the effectiveness of the text's achieving that one goal.
3. Analytic Scoring
For classroom instruction, holistic scoring provides little wash-back into the writer's further stages of learning. Primary trait scoring focuses on the principal function of the text and therefore offers some feedback potential, but no wash-back for any of the aspects of the written production that enhance the ultimate accomplishment of the purpose. Classroom evaluation of learning is best served through analytic scoring, in which as many as six major elements of writing are scored, thus enabling learners to home in on weaknesses and to capitalize on strengths. Analytic scoring may be more appropriately called analytic assessment in order to capture its closer association with classroom language instruction than with formal testing. Brown and Bailey (1984) designed an analytical scoring scale that specified five major categories and a description of five different levels in each category, ranging from "unacceptable" to "excellent" (see Table 9.2).
I. BEYOND SCORING: RESPONDING TO EXTENSIVE WRITING
Formal testing carries with it the burden of designing a practical and reliable instrument that assesses its intended criterion accurately. To accomplish that mission, designers of writing tests are charged with the task of providing as "objective" a scoring procedure as possible, and one that in many cases can be easily interpreted by agents beyond the learner. Holistic, primary trait, and analytic scoring all satisfy those ends. Yet beyond mathematically calculated scores lies a rich domain of assessment in which a developing writer is coached from stage to stage in a process of building a storehouse of writing skills. Here in the classroom, in the tutored relationship of teacher and student, and in the community of peer learners, most of the hard work of assessing writing is carried out. Such assessment is informal, formative, and replete with wash-back.
1. Assessing Initial Stages of the Process of Composing
Following are some guidelines for assessing the initial stages (the first draft or two) of a written composition. These guidelines are generic for self, peer, and teacher responding. Each assessor will need to modify the list according to the level of the learner, the context, and the purpose in responding.
2. Assessing Later Stages of the Process of Composing
Once the writer has determined and clarified his or her purpose and plan, and has completed at least one or perhaps two drafts, the focus shifts toward "fine tuning" the expression with a view toward a final revision. Through all these stages it is assumed that peers and teacher are both responding to the writer through conferencing in person, electronic communication, or, at the very least, an exchange of papers.
References:
Brown, H. Douglas. Language Assessment: Principles and Classroom Practices. Longman.
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